History

Cleopatra

Cleopatra was queen of Egypt about 2,000 years ago. She was intelligent, proud, strong-willed, and she was determined to keep her country free from invaders. When Egypt’s army was defeated by the Romans, Cleopatra decided she would rather die than be taken captive. According to legend, she held a poisonous snake to her body. The snake bit her, and she died.

Cleopatra

A CLEVER QUEEN IN TROUBLED TIMES

Cleopatra was the daughter of the pharaoh (ruler) of Egypt. In 51 BC, when Cleopatra was 17 or 18, her father died. Cleopatra and her 12-year-old brother became the rulers of Egypt. Three years later, her brother declared that he should be the only ruler. He forced Cleopatra to leave Egypt.

Cleopatra started putting together an army to fight her brother. But before war began, Roman general Julius Caesar arrived in Egypt. Cleopatra decided to ask Caesar for help. But how was she going to get back into Egypt, past her brother’s guards? She came up with a clever plan. Her servants rolled her into a carpet, and delivered it as a gift to Caesar. When the carpet was unrolled, out stepped Cleopatra.

Cleopatra’s plan succeeded. Caesar helped Cleopatra defeat her brother. She was again Egypt’s queen.

Caesar fell in love with Cleopatra. When Caesar returned to Rome, Cleopatra visited him there. Caesar promised that the Roman army would not invade Egypt. Then in 44 bc, Caesar was murdered, and Cleopatra returned to Egypt.

ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA

After her return, Cleopatra ruled Egypt without interference for several years. In 41 bc, however, Roman general Mark Antony demanded that Cleopatra meet with him.

Cleopatra was in a difficult situation. She knew that the powerful Roman army could invade Egypt at any time. Cleopatra agreed to meet with Antony, but surprised him by arriving on a magnificent ship, seated on her royal throne. Antony, too, fell in love with the proud queen.

In 35 bc, Antony married Cleopatra and they lived in Egypt. The next year, they announced that they were the rulers of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. This included Egypt and most of the Middle East.

The Roman rulers were angered by this. Roman general Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra. In 31 bc, Octavian won the war and took over Egypt. Both Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves.

Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus tried to take a shortcut, and ended up somewhere he never intended to go. He discovered two continents that people in Europe didn’t even know existed. By crossing the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, Columbus opened contacts between lands and peoples that were unknown to each other. Columbus’s voyage to the Americas opened an exciting period in history. Animals, plants, and new ideas were exchanged between continents. But it also caused terrible tragedy. Millions of Native Americans died as Europeans rushed to take land and riches for themselves. MASTER SAILOR Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in Genoa, Italy. He became a sailor at the age of 14. In 1476, he was shipwrecked off the coast of Portugal. Portugal was Europe’s top seafaring nation at that time. Columbus settled there. Columbus studied geography and navigation, the science of figuring out where things are on Earth’s surface. He became a master sailor. He met explorers who had sailed along the coast of Africa seeking an eastward sea route to the rich lands of Asia. Europeans called these lands “the Indies.” Europeans wanted to bring gold and other treasures from the Indies back to Europe. DARING DREAM Columbus began to think about a wonderful adventure, which he called the “Enterprise of the Indies.” He dreamed of reaching the Indies by sailing west! This was not a new idea, but no one had ever managed to make the voyage. Columbus thought the trip to the Indies west across the ocean would be much shorter than sailing around Africa. Columbus had high hopes, but no money. Who would pay for his expedition? He asked the king of Portugal, but the king refused. Columbus didn’t give up. He went to the rulers of Portugal’s neighbor, Spain. At first they also refused. Eventually, however, the Spanish king and queen agreed to provide three small ships—the Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa María. They also paid for crews and supplies for the voyage. HISTORIC VOYAGE Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain, on August 3, 1492. He stopped at the Canary Islands southwest of Spain, then headed west into unknown seas. He had no idea what lay ahead, but he had faith in his sailing skills and his bold idea. A swift current carried his ships along, and on October 12, the crew sighted the islands of the Bahamas. Columbus thought he had reached Asia. He called the islands the Indies. Columbus was greeted by the Arawak people who lived on the islands. They offered food, but had only a little gold. Columbus was disappointed not to find Asian treasures, but still felt sure he had reached Japan in Asia. He spent two months exploring, then headed home. One of his ships sank in a storm, but back in Spain he was hailed as a hero. The king and queen offered rich rewards and made him “Admiral of the Ocean Seas.” THREE FAILURES Columbus made three more voyages to America. None went well. He was a skillful sailor, but his greed and stubbornness made him a bad leader and created enemies. During his second voyage (1493-1496), Columbus claimed land for Spanish settlements. He fought against Caribbean peoples who lived on the land he claimed and forced them to work as slaves. On the third voyage (1498-1500), Columbus quarreled with Spanish settlers so violently that he was sent back to Europe as a prisoner in chains. On his fourth and final voyage (1502-1504), Columbus was marooned on an island for more than a year. He had to be rescued. He was very ill by the time he returned home to Spain. AN EXTRAORDINARY EXPLORER Columbus died in 1506. He quarreled with the king and queen right up until his death. He wanted authority over Spanish colonies and a larger share of the riches that were brought back from America. It was a sad end to an extraordinary career that still shapes our lives today. When Columbus crossed the Atlantic, he changed the world forever.

Julius Caesar Was Julius Caesar mostly interested in serving the people whom he ruled? Or was he only interested in grabbing power? People who met the Roman statesman could not agree. Caesar was a brilliant soldier and a clever, capable ruler. But he was also extremely ambitious. A FAMOUS FAMILY Caesar was born in 100 bc, to one of Rome’s most famous families. But his family had many enemies, and Caesar thought it best to leave Rome. He trained as a soldier and went to study in Greece. But he hoped for a political career. Caesar returned to Rome in 73 bc and made plans to run for office. He worked on the election campaigns of army general Pompey and Crassus, a very rich noble. The men were running for consul, which was then the highest office in Rome. To win support for the candidates, Caesar invited citizens to attend free gladiator shows in which men fought each other with swords. In 59 bc, Caesar was voted consul. The next year, he became governor of Gaul (a large Roman province in Western Europe). WAR HERO In Gaul, Caesar won famous victories against German and Celtic tribes. Then he invaded Britain and defeated the Britons. To celebrate—and boast—he wrote a book about his military successes in Gaul. Caesar’s success made Pompey jealous, and he tried to get Caesar removed as commander in Gaul. Furious with his former friend, Caesar declared war. Pompey ran away to Greece and then Egypt, but Caesar followed him. Pompey was murdered in Egypt before Caesar arrived. Caesar spent some time in Egypt. He helped put queen Cleopatra back on the throne as Egypt’s ruler. Cleopatra’s brother had removed her from power. Next, Caesar marched east, to crush a rebellion in what is now Turkey. TOO MUCH POWER? In 45 bc, Caesar was back in Rome. He was named dictator for life and given total political power. He reformed the law, reorganized taxes, and introduced a new calendar. We still use a calendar based on the Julian calendar. He named the month of July after himself. Caesar also commanded the Roman army, and was chief priest of the Roman religion. Many Romans admired him, but others felt uneasy that he had so much power. Some senators felt the Roman Senate should have more power. These senators stabbed Caesar to death on March 15 in 44 bc. March 15 was known as the Ides of March in the Roman calendar. When people say, “Beware the Ides of March,” they are referring to the plot to kill Caesar and the possibility of unknown danger lurking nearby.